Latest corrected version 9 November 2025
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Manuscript Sigla
Primary Witnesses (per Wyngaert)
- B — Vienna manuscript; principal witness underlying Wyngaert’s edition and thus the structural base for the present text.
- P — Paris manuscript; collated witness; provides occasional independent readings of value, especially where B appears harmonized.
- G — readings of Pullé’s printed edition as cited by Wyngaert (not an independent manuscript).
Secondary / Derivative Witnesses
Other copies mentioned in later literature appear derivative and have not been used to establish the text.
Editorial Principles
1.
Anno Domini MCCXLV frater Iohannes de Ordine Minorum fratrum, dictus de Plano Carpini, a domino Pape missus ad Thartaros cum alio fratre eiusdem Ordinis, in pascha exiens a Lugduno Gallie ubi Papa fuit, profectus in Poloniam assumpsit in Wratislavia tercium fratrem eiusdem Ordninis Benedictum nomine, Polonum genere, ut esset sibi socius laboris et huius sollicitudinis ac interpres. Qui mediante Conrado duce Polonorum pervenerunt Kioviam, civitatem Ruscie que nunc est sub servitute Thartarorum. Quorum civium rectores conductum eis dederunt ad sex dietas, usque ad primam custodiam Thartarorum circa principium Comanie.
Textual Commentary
- G: “Pape”, “Wratislavia”
- P: “Vretselavia”, “Tartarorum”, omits “eiusdem Ordinis”, “sollicitationis”
- B: “Watislavia”, “Comonie”
Historical Commentary
- Chronology (1245): Mission departed shortly after First Council of Lyon (28 June–17 July 1245). Date discrepancy could reflect medieval Easter reckoning or a scribal abbreviation of the final numerals.
- Benedict’s Role: His recruitment as interpreter (interpres) is stated explicitly. assumpsit…fratrem Benedictum nomine is one among many indications that another person might have written down the oral report by Benedictus.
- Route: Wrocław → Kyiv → Cumania
- Conrad of Masovia: Duke who facilitated passage (1187/88–1247).
- Terminology: Thartarorum preserves Greek-influenced spelling (Θαρτάροι), standardized to Tartarorum in P.
- Comania: Western edge of Cuman (Kipchak) territory.
2.
A cuius custodie ducibus cum audissent eos esse nuntios Pape, postulatis et receptis ab eis muneribus, dicti duo fratres Iohannes et Benedictus, tercio fratre debilitato, cum equis et clientulis quos secum adduxerant ibidem relictis, ut eis mandabatur, in ipsorum Thartarorum equis cum sarcinulis suis sibi salvis perducti sunt ad secundam custodiam. Et ita per plurimas custodias equis permutatis.
Textual Commentary
-
no serious variants
Historical Commentary
- postulatis muneribus: Required protocol in Mongol diplomacy. Benedictus omits specific gifts that they offered.
- tercio fratre: Left behind at this stage, in scholarly tradition assumed to be “Stephanus Bohemus”.
- Yam/ Örtöö System: The Mongol postal relay allowed rapid travel (depending on conditions: 100–300 km/day). Benedictus clearly states they were using the established routes this system provided. Yet, they surely were much slower than the top speed of mail riders.
3.
Tertia die pervenerunt ad ducem unius exercitus, qui prefectus erat octo milibus armatorum, cuius ministri postulantes et recipientes munera, ipsos ad ducem suum Corenzam perduxerunt. Hic interrogavit ab eis causam itineris et qualitatem negotii; qua comperta adiunxit eis tres Thartaros de suis, qui procurarent eis in equis, in expensis de exercitu ad exercitum, donec venirent ad principem Bati nomine, qui est unus de maioribus principibus Thartarorum, qui et Ungariam devastavit.
Textual Commentary
- G: “produxerunt” instead of perduxerunt (following Wyngaert here), “Corenzam”
- P: “Curoniza”
- B: “Cureniza”
Historical Commentary
- Corenzam: This could be Kurumshi, a senior commander under Batu Khan.
- Bati: Batu Khan (1207-1255), founder of the Golden Horde.
- octo milibus: The figure of 8,000 reflects the Mongol decimal unit structure (tümen = 10,000), though the number is probably not exact.
- tres Thartaros: This may have been standard Mongol practice for important envoys, ensuring both protection and surveillance.
4.
In media via transierunt fluvios dictos Nepere et Don; in quo itinere expenderunt quinque septimanas et plus, scilicet a dominica Invocavit usque ad feriam quintam cene Domini, in quo die venerunt ad Bati, ipsum invenientes super magnum flumen Ethil, quem Rusci vocant Volga, qui creditur esse Thanais.
Textual Commentary
- G: “ad octava”, following Wyngaert´s choice of “a dominica” here
- P: “Tanais”
- B: “Beati”, omits “Ethil”
Historical Commentary
- Hydronyms: The triple naming of the Volga (Ethil-Turkic, Volga-Slavic, Thanais -classical) shows Benedictus’ multilingual awareness. Thanais is more likely the river Don.
- Chronology: Invocavit (25 Feb 1246) to cene Domini (5 Apr) matches the 5-week duration of their winter pace in harsh conditions (20-30km/day).
- Geographical error: The misidentification of the Volga as the Thanais (Don) probably stems from inherited knowledge of Ptolemy still influential in 13th-century Europe or from Isidore of Seville and others. Antiquity believed them to unite near the Maeotic marshes.
- Bati’s location: This meeting may have happened at or near the later site of Sarai (founded ca. 1247). Batu’s camp probably lay in the lower Volga zone; the precise placement (Volgograd–Astrakhan corridor) is still uncertain.
5.
Ministri itaque Bati postulata ab eis receperunt munera, scilicet XL pelles castorum et LXXX pelles taxorum. Que munera portata sunt inter duos ignes sacratos ab eis et fratres coacti sunt sequi munera, quia sic mos est apud Thartaros expiare nuncios et munera per ignem. Post ignes stabat currus continens auream statuam Imperatoris, que similiter solet adorari, sed fratres omnino adorare renitentes, compulsi sunt tantum capita inclinare. Bati ergo audita legatione et de verbo ad verbum examinata, cum litteris suis una cum predictis Thartaris ductoribus eorum post V dies, scilicet tercia feria post pascha, misit eos ad filium magni Imperatoris, cuius filii nomen est Cuyucchan, in terram nativitatis Thartarorum.
Textual Commentary
- P: “castrorum”, “tamen”
- B: “Kyvekan”
Historical Commentary
- pelles: The forty beaver and eighty marten pelts numbers correspond to typical tribute quantities in Rus’-Mongol dealings, but the exact numbers are only attested here.
- expiare…per ignem: The ritual between two flames appears as an important prerequisite for entering Mongol camps in Benedictus.
- auream statuam: Maybe represented Ögödei Khan (d. 1241), as Güyük had not yet been enthroned, but speculative. The friars’ refusal to prostrate (only bowing) became standard Franciscan practice in Mongol lands.
- Chronology: Benedictus mentions that they left after five days, which is the Tuesday after Easter (3rd April 1246). The journey to Karakorum would take them roughly three more months.
6.
Dimissi sunt itaque a Bati principe, et ligatis membris institis propter tollerandum laborem equitandi, post duas ebdomadas egressi sunt Comaniam. In Comania autem plurimum invenerunt absynthyum. Nam hec terra olim dicebatur Pontus, sicut Ovidius de Ponto commemorat: Tristia per vastos horrent absynthya campos. Fratres vero euntes per Comaniam a dextris habuerunt terram Saxorum quos nos credimus esse Gothos, et hii sunt christiani; postea Alanos qui sunt christiani; postea Gazaros qui sunt christiani; in hac terra sita est Ornarum, civitas opulenta a Thartaris capta per submersionem aquarum; deinde Cyrcassos et hii sunt christiani; postea Georgianos et hii sunt christiani.
Textual Commentary
- G: “absynthym”, “Ornarum” assuming a meaning like “Ornarum civitas” Wyngaert corrected “Ornam”
- P: “ingressi”
- B: “Camaniam”
Historical Commentary
- Comania: Benedictus attributes the line “Tristia per vastos horrent absynthya campos” to Ovid in order to characterise Comania as the former Pontic region. I am grateful to Professor Czekalska for her correction and confirmation that the original locus is Ovidius, Epistulae ex Ponto III.1.23. (14 Nov. 2025, Author´s note: Previously, the quote was incorrectly identified as uncertain.)
- Travel technique: “ligatis membris institis” refers to wrapping limbs in cloth, which is likely a steppe riding practice to help exhausted riders.
- Christian communities: Benedictus systematically notes Christian groups along the Black Sea coast:
- Saxorum/Gothos: Crimean Gothic remnants (not British or German Saxons).
- Alani: Orthodox Christian Ossetians in the Caucasus.
- Gazaros: The Gazaros are thought to be Christian; their identification as Khazars is debated.
- Cyrcassos: Today ́s Circassians (Byzantine-rite Christians).
- Georgianos: Georgians are still living in a similar area as then.
- Ornarum: The community of Orna, as shown by Pow, can be securely identified with Konye-Urgench (Old Urgench/Gurganj) (14 Nov. 2025, Author´s note: Earlier doubts about the identification with Urgench are no longer valid).
7.
In Ruscia vero in antea habuerunt Morduanos a sinistris, hi sunt pagani et habent capud retro rasum pro maiori parte; postea Byleros et hii sunt pagani; postea Bascardos qui sunt antiqui Ungari; postea Cynocephales capud caninum habentes; postea Parocitas qui habent os parvum et angustum, nec quidquam possunt masticare, sed sorbicia sumunt et vaporibus carnium et fructuum reficiuntur.
Textual Commentary
- B: “manducare” for “masticare”
Historical Commentary
- Ethnographic sequence: Documents the transition from Finno-Ugric to Turkic people along the Volga trade route:
- Morduanos: Mordvins are an ethnic group in the region to this day.
- Byleros: Byleros may represent the Burtas; others assume Volga Bulgars. Their exact identity is debated.
- Bascardos: Likely Bashkir tribes sharing a Finno-Ugric substrate from which the Magyars also originated.
- Mythological elements:
- Cynocephales: Standard mirabile of medieval ethnography; literary tradition rather than ethnographic fact.
- Parocitas: These belong to the tradition of fabulous races; their identity cannot be linked securely to any known people. Speculation sometimes connects them to the Nenets.
- Cultural context: Benedictus blends firsthand observation (hairstyles) with travelers’ lore, which is common in medieval ethnography. But it could also be hearsay or second-hand information received in good faith.
8.
In fine Comanie transierunt fluvium cui nomen Iarach, ubi incipit terra Kangitarum. Per illam fecerunt XX dietas, ubi paucos homines invenerunt sed plurimas paludes et amplas salsas et flumina salsa, quas credimus esse meotidas paludes; transierunt etiam octo diebus per vastam solitudinem squalentem prorsus ariditate et sabulosam. Post terram Kangitarum venerunt Turkyam, ubi primo invenerunt magnam civitatem Iankynt, facientes circa decem dietas per eamdem Turkyam; habet autem Turkya legem Machometi. Post Turkyam intraverunt terram que vocatur Karakytai, id est nigri Kitay, et hii sunt pagani, in qua nullam civitatem invenerunt, in qua invenerunt mare a sinistris, quod credimus esse Caspium mare. Post hanc terram intraverunt terram Naymanorum, in qua nullas villas vel civitates invenerunt, qui quondam fuerunt domini Thartarorum. Post hanc intraverunt terram Thartarorum in festo Marie Magdalene ubi invenerunt Imperatorem apud tentorium magnum quod vocatur Syra orda, ubi morati sunt per quatuor menses, et interfuerunt electioni Cuiuckan Imperatoris eorum.
Textual Commentary
- P: “meondas”, omits “in qua … invenerunt”, “Cueuckan”
- B: omits “et interfuerunt.”
Historical Commentary
- Geographical progression:
- Iarach: Most likely a Latin transliteration of the old name Yaik for the Ural River.
- Kangitarum lands: Probably the Qangli steppe with its salt marshes and arid grasslands.
- Meotidas paludes: Common medieval error locating the Maeotian marshes (Sea of Azov). The information is based on the authority of antique geography.
- Urban encounters:
- Iankynt: Plausibly identified with Jankent on the Syr Darya, a major Islamic trading town; the identification is debated.
- Karakytai: The “Black Khitan” lands (former Western Liao Empire), already depopulated by Mongol conquests.
- Political context:
- Naymanorum: Last remnants of the Nayman confederation that resisted Genghis Khan.
- Syra orda: The imperial Mongol camp/ tent, known as the Syra Orda (‘Yellow Tent’).
- electioni Cuiuckan: This refers to Güyük’s 1246 enthronement as Great Khan.
- Chronology: in festo Marie Magdalene (22 July) marks their arrival at Karakorum either factually or more likely as a symbolic date.
9.
Et idem frater Benedictus Polonus viva voce nobis retulit, quod ipsi ambo viderunt ibidem circiter quinque milia hominum magnatum et potentum, qui omnes induti baldakino prima die comparuerunt in elections Regis, sed nec ipsa die, nec sequenti die, cum comparuissent in albis samitis, concordaverunt, tercia autem die, induti rubeis samitis, concordantes electionem celebraverunt. Testatus est eciam idem frater circa tria milia nunciorum similiter de diversis mundi partibus missorum affuisse, qui responsiones, litteras vel tributa vel xennia diversimoda et multa valde ad eamdem curiam detulerant, inter quos dicti fratres induti numerabantur et ipsi super tunicas suas baldakino prout necessitas urgebat, quia nulli nuntiorum, nisi adcurate vestito, vultum Regis electi et coronati licuit intueri.
Textual Commentary
- G: after “xennia” follows “diversimoda”
- P: “xennia” in P “munera”
- B: “baldekyno”, after “xennia” follows “diversi omnida”
Historical Commentary
- Material culture:
- baldakino: Gold-woven textiles from Baghdad
- samitis: Near East/ Byzantine silk of high quality
- Diplomatic protocol:
- xennia: Latin term xennia (‘gifts’) from Greek, describing tribute offerings that envoys were obliged to present. Parallels, but was not derived from, Byzantine court protocol.
- quinque milia: This number is probably rounded but serves to show the enormous scale of the assembly at Güyük’s quriltai.
- Political theater:
- tercia die: Three-day ritual staged consensus-building, though Güyük’s election was prearranged by strong factions in the background.
- adcurate vestito: The obligatory sartorial compliance shows Mongol control over diplomatic representation and that the monks were just one among numerous embassies.
- Firsthand account: Benedictus emphasizes viva voce testimony to authenticate this unprecedented European witness of Mongol succession and shows that the narration of idem frater Benedictus was written down by others (see also paragraph 1).
10.
Introducti ergo in Syra ordam, scilicet in stacionem Imperatoris, viderunt ipsum coronatum, in mirifico habitu effulgentem, sedentem in medio tentorii super quoddam tabulatum, auro et argento multipliciter decoratum et desuper cancellatum, super quod quatuor distinctionibus ascensuum per gradus ascendebatur. Et tres quidem ascensus erant anterius ad tabulatum, per quorum medium solus Imperator ascendebat et descendebat, per reliquos duos collaterales potentes et mediocres, per quartum vero, qui erat a dorso eius, mater et uxor sua et consanguinei ascendebant. Similiter Syra orda habebat tres introitus in modum portarum, quarum media et maxima que, longe alias precellens, semper est patula et sine omni custodia, solo rege per eam exeunte et introeunte; et si aliquis alius per eam ingrederetur, irremediabiliter interficeretur. Relique due collaterales firmate seris, acerrimos habent custodes ab eisdem cum armis observate, per quas alii cum reverencia, metu statute pene, intrant.
Textual Commentary
- P: after “cancellatum” the phrase “ascensus erant anterius ad tabulatum”, “potentes et mediocres” to “nobiles et alii”, “media… longe” to “media que et maxima longe”, “et si aliquis…” to “per quam intrante; et si quis”
Historical Commentary
- Imperial space:
- Syra orda: Matches Mongol reports of the ‘Yellow Tent’ (great ceremonial tent or pavilion).
- tabulatum, cancellatum, gradus show an eye for detail and a keen interest in giving a detailed report.
- Ritual movement:
- tres ascensus…quartum: The four stairways embodied social hierarchy.
- tres introitus: The three-door layout reflects ceremonial regulation of space.
11.
Tercia die per officiales et interpretes audita est legatio domini Pape cum discussione et maturitate, et postea fratres missi sunt ad matrem Imperatoris, quam reperierunt in alio loco sedentem eciam in magno tentorio pulchro valde; que magis urbanius et familiarius ipsos pertractans, ad filium remisit. Ubi cum morarentur frequenter adiungebant se Georgianis inter Thartaros existentibus, qui sunt satis ab ipsis honorati, quia sunt strenui et bellicosi. Hii homines Georgiani dicuntur, eo quod sanctum Georgium in preliis suis advocant, habendoque eum in patronum, et pre aliis sanctis eum honorant; utentes greco ydiomate in scripturis sacris, et cruces super stationes et currus suos habentes. Consuetudines Grecorum in divinis inter Thartaros observant.
Textual Commentary
- G: “alium” for “filium”, “per aliis factis” for “pre aliis sanctis”
- P: “Tartaris” for “ipsis”, adds “officiis” after “in divinis”
Historical Commentary
- Mongol court dynamics:
- ad matrem Imperatoris: The regent Töregene maintained her own royal tent magno tentorio serving as a parallel power center (1241-46) during the interregnum.
- Georgian military diaspora:
- bellicosi: Georgians lived among the Mongols, held in esteem for their martial prowess.
- in divinis: Georgians openly displayed Christian symbols and celebrated Byzantine liturgy within Mongol camps.
- sanctum Georgium: One of the earliest Western notices of the Georgian devotion to St. George.
12.
Expleto itaque negocio pro quo fratres venerant, dimissi ab Imperatore cum litteris sigillo suo signatis ad dominum Papam reportandis, revertebantur cum nunciis Soldani Babylonie versus occidentem viam facientes, et cum simul per XV dies processissent, dicti nuncii eos dimiserunt declinantes ad meridiem. Ipsi autem fratres ad occidentem progrediebantur et apud Coloniam transito Rheno reversi sunt ad dominum Papam Lugdunum, litteras Imperatoris Thartarorum eidem presentantes quorum tenor per interpretationem factam talis est.
Textual Commentary
- G:“Rheno”
- P: “apud” added after “Papam”
Historical Commentary
- Diplomatic documents:
- sigillo suo: Surviving examples confirm the use of a red Uyghur-script seal with the standard Mongol titulary.
- Lugdunum: The embassy reached Lyon in autumn (Nov 1247), according to papal documents.
- Return journey:
- nuntiis Soldani Babylonie: Envoys of the Sultan of Babylon (Cairo).
- transito Rheno: The friars reached Cologne, where they crossed the Rhine.
- Political context:
- Babylonie: Medieval Europeans conflated Cairo with ancient Babylon, following Crusader-era toponymy.
- ad dominum Papam: The Lyon Council (June-July 1245) had already concluded. Yet, at the time of their return, the papal court resided in Lyon, not in Rome.
13.
Dei fortitudo, omnium hominum Imperator, magno Pape litteras certissimas atque veras. Habito consilio pro pace habenda nobiscum, tu Papa et omnes christiani, nuntium tuum nobis transmisisti sicut ab ipso audivimus, et in tuis litteris habebatur. Igitur si pacem nobiscum habere desideratis, tu Papa et omnes Reges et potentes, pro pace diffinienda ad me venire nullo modo postponatis, et tunc nostram audietis responsionem pariter atque voluntatem. Tuarum continebat series litterarum, quod deberemus baptizari et effici christiani. Ad hoc tibi breviter respondemus, quod hoc non intelligimus qualiter hoc facere debeamus. Ad aliud quod etiam in tuis litteris habebatur, scilicet quod miraris de tanta occisione hominum et maxime christianorum et potissime Pollonorum, Moravorum et Ungarorum, tibi taliter respondemus quod etiam hoc non intelligimus. Verumtamen ne hoc sub silentio omnimodo transire videamur, taliter tibi dicimus respondendum: Quia littere Dei et precepto Cyngis-Chan et Chan non obedierunt et magnum consilium habentes nuntios occiderunt, propterea Deus eos delere precepit et in manibus nostris tradidit. Alioquin, quod si Deus non fecisset, homo homini quid facere potuisset? Sed vos homines occidentis solos vos christianos esse creditis et alios despicitis. Sed quomodo scire potestis, cui Deus suam gratiam conferre dignetur? Nos autem Deum adorando in fortitudine Dei ab oriente usque in occidentem delevimus onmem terram. Et si hec Dei fortitudo non esset, homines quid facere potuissent? Vos autem si pacem suscipitis et vestras nobis vultis tradere fortitudines, tu Papa cum potentibus christianis ad me venire pro pace facienda nullo modo differatis; et tunc sciemus quod vultis pacem habere nobiscum. Si vero Dei et nostris litteris non credideritis et consilium non audieritis, ut ad nos veniatis, tunc pro certo sciemus quod guerram habere vultis nobiscum. Post hec quid futurum sit nos nescimus, solus Deus novit. Cyngis-Chan primus Imperator. Secundus Ochoday-Chan. Tertius Cuiuch-Chan.
Textual Commentary
- Transmission and witnesses:
- The letter appears at the end of the Relatio in B (Vienna) and P (Paris), and also in an independent Vienna copy; the fullest version is that in Salimbene’s Chronica (MGH SS XXXII, 207–208).
- Relation to Wyngaert’s commentary:
- Wyngaert prints the full Latin letter and adds, in his commentary, the French translation by P. Pelliot (1924).
- No systematic manuscript apparatus is provided in Wyngaert.
Historical Commentary
- Political subtext:
- Dei fortitudo: The opening formula corresponds to Mongolian möngke Tengri-yin küčün-dür — “By the power of Eternal Heaven.”
- solus Deus novit: The closing words mirror the Mongol conviction that the divine Heaven alone determines fate.
- Political subtext:
- The letter, issued from Karakorum, late in the year 1246, shortly after Güyük Khan’s enthronement, rejects Pope Innocent IV’s call for baptism and demands instead universal submission to the Mongol ruler.
- Pollonorum, Moravorum et Ungarorum: An enumeration of western lands which marks the furthest extent of the western campaign under Batu follows.
- Theological confrontation:
- Dei fortitudo: Christian terminology reframes Mongol universalism in Latin diction.
- Sed vos homines… alios despicitis: This phrase asserts moral parity of all nations before Heaven especially that of the Mongols, countering papal exclusivity.
Published Edition & Translation
Werner, G. (2025). The Relatio of Benedictus Polonus: A Critical Edition and Historical-Literal Translation (1.0). Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17562338
This publication contains both the critical Latin edition and historical-literal English translation of Benedict the Pole’s 13th-century account of his journey to the Mongol Empire, accompanied by textual commentary and historical analysis.
FarEastLatin 